Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Kikai, located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan, contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). More recent activity has consisted of intermittent thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 46:06). This report covers similar low-level activity including white gas-and-steam plumes, nighttime incandescence, seismicity, and discolored water during May 2021 through April 2023, using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.

Activity was relatively low throughout the reporting period and has consisted of intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-1,400 m above the Iodake crater and nighttime incandescence was observed at the Iodake crater using a high-sensitivity surveillance camera. Each month, frequent volcanic earthquakes were detected, and sulfur dioxide masses were measured by the University of Tokyo Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Mishima Village, and JMA (table 6).

Table 6. Summary of gas-and-steam plume heights, number of volcanic earthquakes detected, and amount of sulfur dioxide emissions in tons per day (t/d). Courtesy of JMA monthly reports.

Sentinel-2 satellite images show weak thermal anomalies at the Iodake crater on clear weather days, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions and occasional discolored water (figure 24). On 17 January 2022 JMA conducted an aerial overflight in cooperation with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s 1st Air Group, which confirmed a white gas-and-steam plume rising from the Iodake crater (figure 25). They also observed plumes from fumaroles rising from around the crater and on the E, SW, and N slopes. In addition, discolored water was reported near the coast around Iodake, which JMA stated was likely related to volcanic activity (figure 25). Similarly, an overflight taken on 11 January 2023 showed white gas-and-steam emissions rising from the Iodake crater, as well as discolored water that spread E from the coast around the island. On 14 February 2023 white fumaroles and discolored water were also captured during an overflight (figure 26).

Figure 24. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 7 December 2021 (top), 23 October 2022 (middle), and 11 January 2023 (bottom). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 25. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising above the Iodake crater at 1119 on 17 January 2022. There was also green-yellow discolored water surrounding the coast of Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JMSDF via JMA.

Figure 26. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing white gas-and-steam plumes rising above the Iodake crater on 14 February 2023. Green-yellow discolored water surrounded Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JCG.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Volcano Database, Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, 3-1-1, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8932, Japan (URL: https://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/kaiikiDB/kaiyo30-2.htm); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).

Information is preliminary and subject to change. All times are local (unless otherwise noted)

January 1988 (SEAN 13:01) Cite this Report

Small ash plumes; first known since 1935

Gray plumes were ejected to 400-500 m above the summit crater of Iwo-dake on 18 January at 0830, 1030, 1640, and 1745. No air or ground shocks were felt by residents. Ash fell on the SE part of the island that evening. When observed from the air on 20 January, the white steam plume was a little larger than usual. A field party at the summit crater 26-28 January measured a fumarole temperature of 788°C, almost the same as in 1985.

Information Contacts: JMA.

October 1991 (BGVN 16:10) Cite this Report

Continued thermal activity; plume from new crater

"Geologists visited Satsuma-Iwo-jima 7-10 November. Several large fumarole fields exist within and around the 300-m-diameter crater. Accessible fumaroles had temperatures ranging from 100 to > 800°C. Several types of sampling were conducted to geochemically characterize the emissions. GSJ geologists had used a COSPEC to measure a maximum SO₂ flux of 500 t/d in May 1990, similar to . . . 15 years previously. In addition to geochemical samples, a portable spectrometer was used to collect spectra of various features to provide ground truth for satellite images of the region. The major summit geomorphological change since last year's visit by GSJ geologists was the formation of a 15 x 30 m pit crater in the SE corner of the main summit crater. Local silica-mine workers first noticed the new pit crater in June or July 1991. A large plume was continuously emitted from the pit crater."

Information Contacts: R. Andres, Michigan Technological Univ; H. Shinohara, R. Symonds, and B. Ritchie, GSJ.

January 1999 (BGVN 24:01) Cite this Report

April 1998 ashfalls; ash eruptions during July-September

During 25-27 April 1998 residents on Tokaro-Iwo-Jima Island reported minor ashfalls. A field inspection on 4-5 May by members of the Kagoshima Local Meteorological Office disclosed a 5-mm-deep ash deposit around the Iwodake Crater. This was interpreted to record a small-scale ash eruption. Around the time of the visit, earthquakes were at a level higher than usual.

Several to 10 earthquakes per day were recorded during July 1998, similar to levels in March. During 27-29 July, reddish-brown ash clouds were escaping from the summit crater and light ashfalls were reported at the village of Takeshima, 10 km to the E of the summit. Seismicity was lower in August, with generally less than 10 events/day recorded. Several light ashfalls occurred during August. In September, earthquake activity increased to 20-40 events per day, and there were several minor ashfalls.

Information Contacts: Yosihiro Sawada, Earthquake & Tsunami Observation Division, Seismology & Volcanology Dept., Japan Meteorological Agency, 1-3-4 Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8122, Japan.

May 1999 (BGVN 24:05) Cite this Report

1997-99 summary; early 1999 eruption deposited 5 cm of ash at crater

The following summarizes activity at Satsuma-Iwo-jima (also called Tokara-Iwo-jima), an island on the NW rim of Kikai Caldera. Information concerning events in 1997-98 was provided through communications from Yosihiro Sawada, forwarded by Dan Shackelford. More recent information is available at the Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) website.

JMA initiated seismic observation at Kikai in September 1997; from the beginning, several volcanic earthquakes were recorded each day. The number of earthquakes increased suddenly in April 1998 to 60-80/day with some days having more than 100 events. Earthquakes were at this high level during a field inspection on 4-5 May 1998. High numbers of earthquakes continued well into June, then gradually waned, before returning to levels seen in March (~10 events/day). Events decreased to <20/day by late June 1998, but increased again to 20-40/day during September, and to more than 60/day in late 1998.

During the inspection in May 1998, JMA staff found a newly deposited ash layer 5 cm thick around the crater, suggesting that an eruption had occurred in late-April or early-May. The Geological Survey of Japan (GSJ) analyzed the ash and concluded that it was composed of silicic and altered lava fragments of Iwo-dake lava (rhyolite). Residents of this volcanic island witnessed ash falls in August and October 1998. In early November GSJ scientists saw intermittent ash emissions from the crater and found ash deposits in the middle of the SE flank.

Volcanic earthquakes occurred 50-100 times/day during January and February 1999, and 90-130 times/day after February. Hypocenters of these earthquakes were located just below Iwo-dake. Island residents observed ash falling on 24 January [and 14 February 1999].

Geophysical activity is monitored by the Sakura-jima Volcano Observatory, Kyoto University, and JMA; geochemical data are maintained by GSJ.

Information Contacts: Yosihiro Sawada, Volcanological Division, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); Volcano Research Center, Earthquake Research Institute (ERI), University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan (URL: http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/index_E.html); Dan Shackelford, 3124 E. Yorba Linda Blvd., Apt. H-33, Fullerton, CA 92831-2324 USA.

July 2001 (BGVN 26:07) Cite this Report

Ashfall and volcanic tremor through July 2001

This report covers activity through July 2001. Volcanic tremor was recorded during 20 to 23 July 2001. A seismometer about 700 m SW of Iwo-dake crater recorded 50-110 earthquakes daily, in comparison to 30-90 earthquakes recorded daily during December 2000 and March 2001. The Iwo-jima branch of the Mishima village office reported that ash fell during 19-21 July. A white plume rose to ~ 20 m above the crater. Faint ashfall and weak volcanic tremor had occurred since December 2000.

Information Contacts: Volcano Research Center, Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan (URL: http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/index_E.html).

April 2003 (BGVN 28:04) Cite this Report

Eruption plumes and ashfall during 24 May-5 June 2002

According to a Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) report on 6 June 2002, discolored plumes associated with volcanic tremor had intermittently issued from Kikai since 11 May 2002. The U.S. Air Force Weather Agency reported that plumes emanating from Satsuma-Iwo-jima (an island forming part of the NW caldera rim of Kikai) were visible on satellite imagery during 24-28 May and 1-4 June 2002. The thin plumes drifted to the S, SE, and E during May, and were estimated to be lower than 3 km altitude. Ash was seen from the island of Yaku-shima on the afternoon of 26 May. JMA noted that the number of small volcanic earthquakes increased after 29 May. The JMA report also stated that discolored plumes were observed from Mishima village in the Ryukyu Islands, and that ash fell on residential areas, during 3-5 June 2002.

Information Contacts: Naokuni Uchida, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Fukuoka, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); Volcano Research Center, Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0032, Japan (URL: http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/VRC/index_E.html); Charles Holliday, U.S. Air Force Weather Agency, 106 Peacekeeper Drive, Ste 2NE, Offut AFB, NE 68113-4039, USA (URL: http://www.557weatherwing.af.mil/).

July 2005 (BGVN 30:07) Cite this Report

Small eruptions during March-September 2004 produce ash plumes

An eruption in 2002 began on 11 May when discolored plumes were noted (BGVN 28:04). Anomalous seismicity began on 14 May 2002, when about 900 events were recorded (table 1). The number of events dropped to very low levels the next day, but then gradually increased to a peak of 967 on the 28th and almost that many on the 29th. During June 2002, seismicity was high on the 2nd (650 events), 3rd (> 300 events), and 8th (~ 240 events). There were also 117 tremor events during the month, 73 of them on the 15th. Plumes and ashfall were reported through 5 June (BGVN 28:04).

Table 1. Summary of seismicity and plume observations at Kikai, May 2002-January 2005. All reported plumes were described as either white (W), light white (LW), grayish white (GW), or gray (G). Data courtesy of JMA.

Activity for the following year consisted of low-level seismicity of less than 200 events per month, and frequent, almost daily, white plumes. Eruptive activity began again on 7-8 June 2003 when 800-1,000 m ash plumes were recorded. Although plumes were not reported, eruptions also occurred during 10-12 June. Additional eruptions were noted by JMA during 7, 14-17, 26, 27, and 30 July, and 12, 13, and 15-18 August 2003. All of the June-August eruptions caused ashfall. The last grayish white eruption plumes in 2003 were seen on 19 and 22 September.

From March to September 2004, Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) reports indicated a number of small eruptions at Kikai. Three plumes in March 2004 reportedly rose to 1.5 km altitude, but no ash was visible in satellite imagery (table 2). JMA also reported eruptions on those days, but only indicated plumes 700 m high.

Table 2. Date and time of eruptions from Kikai, the direction and altitude of observed plumes, and whether ash was seen on satellite image. Based on information from the Tokyo VAAC.

Another plume on 1 June did have ash visible to satellites. This eruption was not included in the JMA observations. Plumes were seen again on 13 August and 25 September, again with JMA only reporting 700-800 m plumes compared to 1.2 and 1.5 km plumes, respectively, in the VAAC advisory. No seismicity was detected during 25 September-5 October 2004, the period following the eruption of a grayish-white plume to 700 m. Data from JMA through January 2005 indicate continuing volcanic earthquakes (less than 10/day in December) and almost daily white plumes as high as 700 m, but generally 400 m or below.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Volcanological Division 1-3-4 Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center, Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), 1-3-4 Ote-machi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100, Japan (URL: https://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/).

July 2012 (BGVN 37:07) Cite this Report

Low level tremor and frequent white plumes during October 2010-June 2012

Kikai was the scene of ongoing steaming and modest seismic unrest during October 2010-June 2012. As background, Kikai (also called Satsuma-Iwo-jima and Tokara-Iwo-jima), an island on the NW rim of the submerged Kikai caldera (figure 1), experienced chiefly low-level seismicity between 2002 and 2004 punctuated by stronger earthquakes and tremor, and three small eruptions during May-June 2002, June-August 2003, and March-September 2004 (BGVN 28:04 and 30:07). Almost daily plumes, most of which were white, occurred between late 2002 and at least January 2005 (BGVN 30:07).

Figure 1. Maps showing Kikai caldera and the two associated islands along its rim, Satsuma-Iwo-jima and Tokara-Iwo-jima. The top-right inset map shows the regional extent of the main figure; the lower-left inset map (b) relates to the author's proposed model of pyroclastic flow venting and tsunami generation. Taken from Maeno and Imamura (2007).

Recent monthly reports of volcanic activity from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) translated into English resumed in October 2010. Thus, in this report, we lack JMA reports between January 2005 and September 2010 and only summarize and tabulate activity after October 2010 and as late as June 2012.

In an effort to gather other information, we searched for MODVOLC thermal alerts at Kikai and found none during January 2005 to late September 2012. Only one alert appeared in the past decade. That weak alert occurred on 2 August 2003 at a point along the coast well to the NE of the crater. This was unlikely the result of eruptive causes owing to the location and extended absence of alerts at the crater and dome. Near-source thermal photography (noted by JMA and mentioned below) revealed subtle thermal anomalies suggesting elevated temperatures over parts of the dome.

According to JMA, seismicity was relatively low during October 2010-June 2012. Slight increases occurred during 28-31 October 2010 and on 21 August 2011 (Table 3). White-plumes appeared at Iodake summit crater, and their size remained above background throughout the reporting period (Table 3). An occasional night-time glow was visible with a high-sensitivity camera, during at least January-April 2011, July-August 2011, February 2012, and May-June 2012.

Table 3. Monthly summary of seismicity and plume observations at Kikai during October 2010-June 2012. All reported plumes were described as white. All reported volcanic tremor was of small amplitude and short duration. Seismicity in October 2010 was low (as shown) except for occasional increases on 28, 30 and 31 October. The tremor during February 2011 was the first to occur since February 2010. '-' indicates data not reported. Data courtesy of JMA.

Aerial infrared observations on 14 December 2010 and during November-December 2011 found that the distribution of thermal anomalies in the crater had not changed since previous observations in April 2008 and on 22 December 2009. In addition, according to the Japanese Coast Guard, the summit crater did not visibly change between observations on 22 October 2010 and 19 January 2011. According to a field survey on 26 November 2011, the sulfur-dioxide flux averaged 800 tons per day. In December 2011, discolored water, apparently caused by volcanic activity, was observed near the coast. No remarkable crustal change was observed by GPS during Janurary 2012-June 2012.

The journal Earth, Planets and Space produced an edition in 2002 with 16 articles devoted to Kikai caldera, Satsuma-Iwo-jima, and related topics (Shinohara and others, 2002). A video entitled "Satsuma-Iwojima, Japan" uploaded to Youtube in September 2008 shows a steaming fumarole with bright yellow (sulfur?) incrustations (str4hler, 2008).

References. Maeno, F. and Imamura, F., 2007, Numerical investigations of tsunamis generated by pyroclastic flows from the Kikai caldera, Japan, Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 34, L23303 (DOI: 10.1029/2007GL031222).

Shinohara, H., Iguchi, M., Hedenquist, J.W., and Koyaguchi, T., 2002, Preface to special volume, Earth, Planets and Space, Vol. 54 (No. 3), pp. 173-174.

str4hler, 2008, [Video] Satsuma-Iwojima, Japan. Accessed 21 September 2012, uploaded to Youtube on 16 September 2008 (URL: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jyIhaEQAPlw).

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); MODVOLC, Hawai’i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai’i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

January 2013 (BGVN 38:01) Cite this Report

Steam plumes rose to 800 m duing latter half of 2012

Kikai is a 17 x 20 km mostly submarine caldera as close as ~40 km from the S margin of the island of Kyushu (see figure 1 in BGVN 37:07; also see Shinohara and others, 2002, for 16 journal articles devoted to this volcano. Maeno, 2008, offers an online overview). A few areas on the caldera rim lie above water (figure 2). Mild-to-moderate emissions have often occurred at the dome called Iwo-dake (alternately spelled Iodake, figure 2). Table 4 summarizes the seismicity and steam plume observations for July-December 2012, an interval of calm, absence of tremor, and low hazard status.

Figure 2. A shaded-relief, contour map of Kikai caldera that labels three islands on the N caldera rim, Satsuma Iwo-jima, Showa Iwo-jima, and Take-shima. Satsuma Iwo-jima contains the highest point of the complex (704 m elevation). On that island, the cones Iwo-dake (a rhyolitic volcano) and Inamura-dake (a basaltic volcano) both reflect post-caldera volcanism focused along or just inside the caldera's wall (the shaded, scalloped line trending NE across the island). The island Showa Iwo-jima emerged during the caldera's last major eruptions, during 1934-1935, starting with floating pumices and including late-stage lava emissions that helped armor the island and allowed it to erode only modestly during the subsequent decades of breaking waves. The caldera floor chiefly resides 300-500 m below sea level but it also contains some post-eruptive cones. From Fukashi Maeno (2008).

Table 4. Monthly summary of seismicity and plume observations at Kikai during July-December 2012. All reported plumes were described as white. Data courtesy of JMA.

We last reported on Kikai activity through mid-2012 (BGVN 37:07) covering generally small steam plumes and monthly seismicity of up to ~200 earthquakes per month through June 2012. This report is a compilation of subsequent monthly reports of volcanic activity through December 2012 from Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) monthly reports. The Alert Level remained constant at Level 2 (on a scale of 1-5: 2 = "Do not approach the crater"), before being downgraded to Level 1 in December 2012.

Between July and September 2012, plume emissions at the Iwo-dake summit crater continued (table 4). Weak incandescence was recorded at night with a high-sensitivity camera on 22 July, 28 August, 6 November and 22-24 November. Seismic activity remained at low levels. No unusual ground deformation was observed in GPS data through December 2012.

An aerial observation conducted by the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force (JMSDF) on 11 September 2012 revealed white plumes rising from Iwo-dake's summit crater and flanks.

The results of a field survey conducted from 17-20 November 2012 showed no remarkable change in white fumes from Iwo-dake. Infrared images also found that the temperature distribution had remained essentially unchanged. Aerial monitoring conducted by the Japan Coast Guard (JCG) on 25 November 2012 revealed the presence of brown and green discolored water around the eastern coast (similar findings as a previous survey) as well as patterns of steaming similar to those observed during the field survey. SO₂ emissions during 17-20 November 2012 were measured to be ~400 tons/day; a previous survey conducted in July 2012 yielded an estimated flux of ~500 tons/day.

References. Shinohara, H., Iguchi, M., Hedenquist, J.W., and Koyaguchi, T., 2002, Preface to special volume, Earth, Planets and Space 54 (3), pp. 173-174.

Maeno, F, 2008, Geology and eruptive history of Kikai Caldera, Earthquake Research Institute, University of Tokyo (URL: http://www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp/fmaeno/kikai/kikaicaldera.html); accessed 23 February 2013.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); MODVOLC, Hawai'i Institute of Geophysics and Planetology (HIGP), MODVOLC Thermal Alerts System, School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology (SOEST), Univ. of Hawai'i, 2525 Correa Road, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA (URL: http://modis.higp.hawaii.edu/).

July 2014 (BGVN 39:07) Cite this Report

Small ash eruption on 4 June 2013

Kikai is a caldera, mostly submerged, which includes several islands (figure 3). Previous reports documented modest seismic activity during October 2010-December 2012, with occasional tremor (through June 2012), minor earthquakes, and diffuse white plumes (BGVN 37:07 and 38:01). Subsequent activity during January 2013-July 2014 included one eruption with intermittent explosions, occasional ash and steam plumes, and sporadic weak seismic tremor.

Figure 3. The subaerial expression of Kikai includes two major islands: Satsuma Iwo-jima (~5.5 km long) and Take-shima (~4.5 km long). Three additional islands are included in the structure: Unose, Asase, and Showa Iwo-jima, of which only Showa Iwo-jima was large enough to include on this topographic map. The red dotted lines correspond to the mostly-submerged Kikai caldera structure. Elevations and bathymetry are indicated by color coding based on the key in meters. Courtesy of the Geological Survey of Japan.

Ash plume on 4 June 2013. During 2013, seismicity from Satsuma Iwo-jima was at background levels and plume activity (vapor plumes that rose 300-900 m above the summit) was limited for most of the year (figure 4). Seismic unrest occurred during 15-26 May but dropped back to normal levels thereafter.

Figure 4. Plots showing multi-year records of measured plume heights (1 and 3) and volcanic earthquakes (2 and 4) during 1 January 1998-3 June 2013 from Satsuma Iwo-jima. Explosive events frequently occurred during 1998-2004 (red arrows) and following a ~8 year hiatus, activity resumed on 3 June 2013. Plume heights are measured in meters above the crater. Note that 1) personnel began observational monitoring on 1 August 1998; 2) video monitoring was installed on 16 November 2002; 3) there were video camera problem during 23 February-21 March 2009; 4) seismic data is incomplete due to problems with monitoring equipment. This record is from a seismic station located less than 1 km from the summit. Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

According to the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), weak tremor was detected at 0502 on 4 June. At ~0517, an eruption began, with explosions occurring intermittently until 1500. An ash plume drifted W from Satsuma Iwo-jima's summit (figure 5), Iodake (also "Iwo-dake"). As a result, JMA raised the Alert Level from 1 to 2 on a scale of 5. The Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC) issued two advisories on 4 June, although no ash was visible in satellite images. Despite this activity, there were few signs of unrest from the seismic, GPS, and thermal monitoring networks during 3-5 June. JMA released a warning about potentially hazardous conditions within 1 km of the summit and noted that the leeward side of the island could experience ashfall and gas emissions.

Figure 5. Areas at Satsuma Iwo-jima on 4 June 2013 with observed an ash plume (yellow circles) and potential ashfall (white circles). Low-level clouds obscured much of the view, but brown-colored areas in the white clouds were identified as ash. The town of Mishima is located at the cluster of white buildings in the harbor (Nagahama Bay) formed by the Erabuzaki peninsula. Within the harbor and other protected inlets along shore, the water color is orange-brown; this is a persistent feature of the island that results from hydrothermal vents contributing Fe-oxyhydroxides and causing turbidity (Kiyokawa and others, 2012). The look direction in both images is approximately NNW. Courtesy of JMA.

Ashfall from the 4 June 2013 eruption was reported on the flanks of Iodake during field surveys. Deposits were also noted in the village of Mishima, ~3 km WSW of the summit. After 6 June, white plumes rose from the summit as high as 400 m. Sulfur dioxide emissions measured before and after the eruption did not indicate any anomalies; the average flux was 300 tons per day based on measurements from 29 May and 400 tons per day on 9 July 2013.

Aerial surveys and thermal monitoring. Hot springs and other thermal feature have been well-documented and monitored across Satsuma Iwo-jima (figure 6). JMA reported that an aerial survey on 13 June 2013 provided a view of the E flank where a persistently active fumarole appeared to have expanded in size (figure 7). Aerial surveys conducted on 9 July and 25 December 2013 found no major thermal changes on the surface of Iodake; however, elevated temperatures persisted at fumarolic sites (figure 8).

Figure 6. (A) Geologic map of Satsuma Iwo-jima annotated with place names and showing the small islands of Unose (NE), Showa Iwo-jima (NE), and Asase (SE). Lithologies range from rhyolite to basalt; Iodake (also written Iwodake) is dominantly rhyolitic (the Nagahama lava flow is dacitic), Yahazudake is andesitic-to-basaltic, Showa Iwo-jima has a rhyolitic central zone and dacitic breccia zone, and Inamura-dake is basaltic (Maeno and Taniguchi, 2006; Ono and others, 1982). (B) Distribution of fumaroles, hot springs, and diffuse soil gas emissions on Satsuma Iwo-jima and offshore sites. The highest temperatures (~800°C) were mainly restricted to the summit of Iodake, within Oana crater. The black arrow indicates the area where a low-temperature (~100°C) fumarole has been active on the E flank, the location of morphological changes in June 2013. Courtesy of the Geological Survey of Japan.

Figure 7. Aerial survey recording conditions on Satsuma Iwo-jima on 13 June 2013. The scar associated with an active fumarole on the E flank (red circle) was notably larger compared to previous images from December 2012. Courtesy of JMA.

Figure 8. Thermal images (at right) paired with visible light photos of Satsuma Iwo-jima from less than 2 km away taken on 9 July 2013. Visible and thermal images of the N (top) and W flank (bottom). JMA noted that elevated temperatures from the ground surface occurred in areas known for fumarolic activity. These conditions did not change significantly in the months before or after the 4 June 2013 eruption. Courtesy of JMA.

Observations during 2014. JMA reported few changes during January-July 2014 (table 5). White plumes were frequently observed and typically rose 300-800 m above the summit (figure 9). Earthquakes occurred at background levels. Four episodes of tremor occurred in February with a total duration of two minutes. Several field surveys determined that no significant changes were occurring with respect to SO₂ flux and thermal emissions. Since December 2013, incandescence from the summit was observed only in January and June 2014.

Table 5.Monthly observations and monitoring data for Satsuma Iwo-jima during December 2013-July 2014. Plume heights were documented and presumably reflect characteristic heights seen above the vent; white plumes were frequently visible. Courtesy of JMA.

Figure 9. Video camera image of Satsuma Iwo-jima at 1500 on 6 January 2014. Steam plumes such as this were frequently observed during January-July 2014 rising 300-800 m above the crater. The camera location was ~3 km W of the summit near the town of Mishima. Courtesy of JMA.

References. Kiyokawa, S., Ninomiya, T., Nagata, T., Oguri, K., Ito, T., Ikehara, M., and Yamaguchi, K.E., 2012, Effects of tides and weather on sedimentation of iron-oxyhydroxides in a shallow-marine hydrothermal environment at Nagahama Bay, Satsuma Iwo-Jima Island, Kagoshima, southwest Japan, Island Arc, 21, 66-78.

Maeno, F. and Taniguchi, H., 2006, Silicic lava dome growth in the 1934–1935 Showa Iwo-jima eruption, Kikai caldera, south of Kyushu, Japan, Bulletin of Volcanology, 68, 673-688.

Ono, K., Soya, T., and Hosono, T., 1982, Geology of the Satsuma-Io-Jima District. Quadrangle Series, Scale 1:50,000, Geological Survey Japan, 80 p.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/); Geological Survey of Japan and National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (GSJ, AIST) (URL: https://www.gsj.jp/en/index.html, http://www.aist.go.jp/index_en.html); Tokyo Volcanic Ash Advisory Center (VAAC), Tokyo, Japan (URL: http://ds.data.jma.go.jp/svd/vaac/data/).

May 2018 (BGVN 43:05) Cite this Report

Elevated thermal activity during February-April 2018; one earthquake swarm in March

Heightened activity at Kikai (also known as Satsuma Iwojima) was reported during January 2013-July 2014 (BGVN 39:07), which included one eruption with intermittent explosions, occasional ash and steam plumes, and sporadic weak seismic tremor. Subsequently, seismicity remained at background levels, and plume activity was low. A short-lived period of heightened activity occurred in March 2018, with increased daily plume heights, sulfur dioxide output, and seismicity. Activity returned to background levels by 26 April. This report is based on information supplied by the Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA).

JMA reported that one small-amplitude short-duration volcanic tremor was detected on 16 March 2018. The number of volcanic earthquakes increased on 19 March, with 93 occurrences, prompting JMA to raise the Alert Level from 1 (active volcano) to 2 (restricted area around the crater), on a 5-level scale. The report noted increased thermal activity since February, with occasional visual observations of incandescence. Plume heights and volcanic earthquakes briefly increased during 22-23 March (figure 10, plot 4).

Figure 10. Plots showing multi-year records of measured plume heights (1 and 4) and volcanic earthquakes (2 and 5) during January 1998-April 2018 from Kikai. Explosive events are indicated by the small volcano icons along the top of plot 1. Plot 3 indicates measured sulfur dioxide in tons/day since 2012. The orange diamonds on plot 4 indicate observations of incandescence. Plume heights are measured in meters above the crater. This record is from a seismic station located less than 1 km from the summit. Courtesy of Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

The number of volcanic earthquakes was low during 27 March-2 April. A white plume at the Iwo-dake summit crater rose to 1,800 m above the crater rim in late March (figure 8, plot 4), the highest seen in many years. At the same crater a highly sensitive surveillance camera revealed incandescence at night on 27 and 28 March due to increased thermal activity. No incandescence was observed after 12 April (figure 8, plot 4).

In its report for 20-26 April, JMA noted a white plume at the Iwo-dake summit crater that rose to 700 m above the rim. A field survey conducted on 25 and 26 April confirmed the slight expansion of a thermal anomaly area when compared to 24 and 25 March, but the release amount of sulfur dioxide was slightly less than 300 tons per day (compared with 600 tons on March 24) (figure 8, plot 3).

On 27 April 2018, with volcanic earthquakes being small in number and no observed volcanic tremor, JMA determined that activity had decreased and reduced the warning level from 2 to 1.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/).

February 2020 (BGVN 45:02) Cite this Report

Single explosion with steam and minor ash, 2 November 2019

The 19-km-wide submerged Kikai caldera at the N end of Japan’s Ryukyu Islands was the source of one of the world's largest Holocene eruptions about 6,300 years ago, producing large pyroclastic flows and abundant ashfall. During the last century, however, only intermittent minor ash emissions have characterized activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima island, the larger subaerial fragment of the Kikai caldera; several events have included limited ashfall in communities on nearby islands. The most recent event was a single day of explosions on 4 June 2013 that produced ash plumes and minor ashfall on the flank. A minor episode of increased seismicity and fumarolic activity was reported in late March 2018, but no ash emissions were reported. A new single-day event on 2 November 2019 is described here with information provided by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

JMA reduced the Alert Level to 1 on 27 April 2018 after a brief increase in seismicity during March 2018 (BGVN 45:05); no significant changes in volcanic activity were observed for the rest of the year. Steam plumes rose from the summit crater to heights around 1,000 m; the highest plume rose 1,800 m. Occasional nighttime incandescence was recorded by high-sensitivity surveillance cameras. SO₂ measurements made during site visits in March, April, and May indicated amounts ranging from 300-1,500 tons per day, similar to values from 2017 (400-1,000 tons per day). Infrared imaging devices indicated thermal anomalies from fumarolic activity persisted on the N and W flanks during the three site visits. A field survey of the SW flank on 25 May 2018 confirmed that the crater edge had dropped several meters into the crater since a similar survey in April 2007. Scientists on a 19 December 2018 overflight had observed fumarolic activity.

There were no changes in activity through October 2019. Weak incandescence at night continued to be periodically recorded with the surveillance cameras (figure 11). A brief eruption on 2 November 2019 at 1735 local time produced a gray-white plume that rose slightly over 1,000 m above the Iodake crater rim (figure 12). As a result, JMA raised the Alert Level from 1 to 2. During an overflight the following day, a steam plume rose a few hundred meters above the summit, but no further activity was observed. No clear traces of volcanic ash or other ejecta were found around the summit (figure 13). Infrared imaging also showed no particular changes from previous measurements. Discolored seawater continued to be observed around the base of the island in several locations.

Figure 11. Incandescence at night on 25 October 2019 was observed at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) with the Iwanogami webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, October 1st year of Reiwa [2019]).

Figure 12. The Iwanogami webcam captured a brief gray-white ash and steam emission rising above the Iodake crater rim on Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 2 November 2019 at 1738 local time. The plume rose slightly over 1,000 m before dissipating. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, October 1st year of Reiwa [2019]).

Figure 13. During an overflight of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 3 November 2019 no traces of ash were seen from the previous day’s explosion; only steam plumes rose a few hundred meters above the summit, and discolored water was present in a few places around the shoreline. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, October 1st year of Reiwa [2019]).

For the remainder of November 2019, steam plumes rose up to 1,300 m above the summit, and nighttime incandescence was occasionally observed in the webcam. Seismic activity remained low and there were no additional changes noted through January 2020.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html).

May 2020 (BGVN 45:05) Cite this Report

Ash explosion on 29 April 2020

The Kikai caldera is located at the N end of Japan’s Ryukyu Islands and has been recently characterized by intermittent ash emissions and limited ashfall in nearby communities. On Satsuma Iwo Jima island, the larger subaerial fragment of the Kikai caldera, there was a single explosion with gas-and-steam and ash emissions on 2 November 2019, accompanied by nighttime incandescence (BGVN 45:02). This report covers volcanism from January 2020 through April 2020 with a single-day eruption occurring on 29 April based on reports from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA).

Since the last one-day eruption on 2 November 2019, volcanism at Kikai has been relatively low and primarily consisted of 107-170 earthquakes per month and intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions rising up to 1.3 km above the crater summit. Intermittent weak hotspots were observed at night in the summit in Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery and webcams, according to JMA (figures 14 and 15).

Figure 14. Weak thermal hotspots (bright yellow-orange) were observed on 7 January (top) and 6 April 2020 (bottom) at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai). Sentinel-2 satellite images with “Atmospheric penetration” (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 15. Incandescence at night on 10 January 2020 was observed at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) in the Iodake crater with the Iwanogami webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, January 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Weak incandescence continued in April 2020. JMA reported SO₂ measurements during April were 400-2000 tons/day. A brief eruption in the Iodake crater on 29 April 2020 at 0609 generated a gray-white ash plume that rose 1 km above the crater (figure 16). No ashfall or ejecta was observed after the eruption on 29 April.

Figure 16. The Iwanogami webcam captured a brief gray-white ash and steam plume rising above the Iodake crater rim on Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 29 April 2020 at 0609 local time. The plume rose 1 km above the crater summit. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, April 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

November 2020 (BGVN 45:11) Cite this Report

Explosion on 6 October 2020 and thermal anomalies in the crater

Kikai is a mostly submarine caldera, 19-km-wide, just S of the Ryukyu Islands of Japan. At the NW rim of the caldera lies the island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iojima and Tokara Iojima), and the island’s highest peak, Iodake, a steep stratovolcano. Recent weak ash explosions at Iodake occurred on 2 November 2019 and 29 April 2020 (BGVN 45:02, 45:05). The volcano is monitored by the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and satellite sensors. This report covers the period May-October 2020. During this time, the Alert Level remained at 2 (on a 5-level scale).

Activity at Kikai has been relatively low since the previous eruption on 29 April 2020. During May through October occasional white gas-and-steam emissions rose 0.8-1.3 km above the Iodake crater, the latter of which was recorded in September. Emissions were intermittently accompanied by weak nighttime incandescence, according to JMA (figure 17).

Figure 17. White gas-and-steam emissions rose 1 km above the crater at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 25 May (top) 2020. At night, occasional incandescence could be seen in the Iodake crater, as seen on 29 May (bottom) 2020. Both images taken by the Iwanoue webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, May 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

A small eruption at 0757 on 6 October occurred in the NW part of the Iodake crater, which produced a grayish white plume rising 200 m above the crater (figure 18). Faint thermal anomalies were detected in Sentinel-2 thermal satellite imagery in the days just before this eruption (28 September and 3 October) and then after (13 and 23 October), accompanied by gas-and-steam emissions (figures 19 and 20). Nighttime crater incandescence continued to be observed. JMA reported that sulfur dioxide emissions measured 700 tons per day during October, compared to the previous eruption (400-2,000 tons per day in April 2020).

Figure 18. Webcam images of the eruption at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 6 October 2020 that produced an ash plume rising 200 m above the crater (top). Nighttime summit crater incandescence was also observed (bottom). Images were taken by the Iwanoue webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, October 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Figure 19. Weak thermal hotspots (bright yellow-orange) were observed at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) during late September through October 2020. Sentinel-2 satellite images with “Atmospheric penetration” (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering; courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 20. Webcam image of a white gas-and-steam plume rising 1.1 km above the crater at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 27 October 2020. Image was taken by the Iwanoue webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, October 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

June 2021 (BGVN 46:06) Cite this Report

Thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes persist during November 2020-April 2021

Kikai is located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan and contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). This report updates information from November 2020 through April 2021 using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.

Activity during the reporting period was relatively low and primarily consisted of faint nighttime incandescence and occasional white gas-and-steam emissions (figure 21). During November 2020 incandescence was observed at night with a high-sensitivity surveillance camera and white gas-and-steam emissions rose to a high of 1 km above the crater on 2 November (figure 22). Sulfur dioxide measurements ranged from 900-1,200 tons/day, which was slightly higher than October (700 tons/day). The number of earthquakes detected during the month was 86, which was slightly lower than the previous month (97). Thermal activity continued in December accompanied by a white gas-and-steam plume that rose 1.2 km above the crater on 23 December (figure 23). The number of earthquakes had increased significantly to 265, as well as the SO₂ flux to 800-1,900 tons/day.

Figure 21. Intermittent weak thermal anomalies (yellow-orange) were observed at the summit of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 27 November (top left) 2020, 22 December (top right), 31 January (bottom left) 2021, and 26 April (bottom right). Sentinel-2 satellite images with “Atmospheric penetration” (bands 12, 11, 8A) rendering. Courtesy of Sentinel Hub Playground.

Figure 22. Webcam image of a white gas-and-steam plume rising 1 km above the crater at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 2 November 2020. Image taken by the Iwanoue webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, November 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Figure 23. White gas-and-steam plume rose 1.2 km above the crater at Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) on 23 December (top) 2020. At night, occasional incandescence could be seen in webcam images, as shown on 24 December (bottom). Both images taken by the Iwanoue webcam. Courtesy of JMA (An explanation of volcanic activity at Satsuma Iwo Jima, December 2nd year of Reiwa [2020]).

Similar activity was reported in January 2021 with nighttime incandescence and a gas-and-steam plume that rose to a maximum height of 1.2 km above the Iodake crater that was recorded on 4 January. The SO₂ flux was 300-1,800 tons/day. JMA reported some discoloration in the water at the coast near Iodake. There were 144 earthquakes recorded. White gas-and-steam emissions continued in February, rising up to 800 m above the crater on 24 February, as well as nighttime incandescence. The number of earthquakes had decreased slightly to 119 this month. SO₂ measurements ranged 900-1,100 tons/day.

During March faint nighttime incandescence and seismicity continued; 145 earthquakes were detected. A white gas-and-steam plume rose to a high of 900 m above the crater on 15 March. The sulfur dioxide flux ranged from 500-1,200 tons/day, which was around a similar range as the previous month. In April, nighttime incandescence and earthquake events persisted; there was a slight increase in the number of earthquakes from 145 to 181. A white gas-and-steam plume rose 1.2 km above the crater on 8 April. Measurements of the SO₂ flux were 800-900 tons/day during April.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Sentinel Hub Playground (URL: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/sentinel-playground).

May 2023 (BGVN 48:05) Cite this Report

Intermittent white gas-and-steam plumes, discolored water, and seismicity during May 2021-April 2023

Kikai, located just S of the Ryukyu islands of Japan, contains a 19-km-wide mostly submarine caldera. The island of Satsuma Iwo Jima (also known as Satsuma-Iwo Jima and Tokara Iojima) is located at the NW caldera rim, as well as the island’s highest peak, Iodake. Its previous eruption period occurred on 6 October 2020 and was characterized by an explosion and thermal anomalies in the crater (BGVN 45:11). More recent activity has consisted of intermittent thermal activity and gas-and-steam plumes (BGVN 46:06). This report covers similar low-level activity including white gas-and-steam plumes, nighttime incandescence, seismicity, and discolored water during May 2021 through April 2023, using information from the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) and various satellite data. During this time, the Alert Level remained at a 2 (on a 5-level scale), according to JMA.

Activity was relatively low throughout the reporting period and has consisted of intermittent white gas-and-steam emissions that rose 200-1,400 m above the Iodake crater and nighttime incandescence was observed at the Iodake crater using a high-sensitivity surveillance camera. Each month, frequent volcanic earthquakes were detected, and sulfur dioxide masses were measured by the University of Tokyo Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute, Mishima Village, and JMA (table 6).

Table 6. Summary of gas-and-steam plume heights, number of volcanic earthquakes detected, and amount of sulfur dioxide emissions in tons per day (t/d). Courtesy of JMA monthly reports.

Sentinel-2 satellite images show weak thermal anomalies at the Iodake crater on clear weather days, accompanied by white gas-and-steam emissions and occasional discolored water (figure 24). On 17 January 2022 JMA conducted an aerial overflight in cooperation with the Japan Maritime Self-Defense Force’s 1st Air Group, which confirmed a white gas-and-steam plume rising from the Iodake crater (figure 25). They also observed plumes from fumaroles rising from around the crater and on the E, SW, and N slopes. In addition, discolored water was reported near the coast around Iodake, which JMA stated was likely related to volcanic activity (figure 25). Similarly, an overflight taken on 11 January 2023 showed white gas-and-steam emissions rising from the Iodake crater, as well as discolored water that spread E from the coast around the island. On 14 February 2023 white fumaroles and discolored water were also captured during an overflight (figure 26).

Figure 24. Sentinel-2 satellite images of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing sets of visual (true color) and infrared (bands 12, 11, 8a) views on 7 December 2021 (top), 23 October 2022 (middle), and 11 January 2023 (bottom). Courtesy of Copernicus Browser.

Figure 25. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing a white gas-and-steam plume rising above the Iodake crater at 1119 on 17 January 2022. There was also green-yellow discolored water surrounding the coast of Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JMSDF via JMA.

Figure 26. Aerial image of Satsuma Iwo Jima (Kikai) showing white gas-and-steam plumes rising above the Iodake crater on 14 February 2023. Green-yellow discolored water surrounded Mt. Iodake. Courtesy of JCG.

Information Contacts: Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA), Otemachi, 1-3-4, Chiyoda-ku Tokyo 100-8122, Japan (URL: http://www.jma.go.jp/jma/indexe.html); Japan Coast Guard (JCG) Volcano Database, Hydrographic and Oceanographic Department, 3-1-1, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8932, Japan (URL: https://www1.kaiho.mlit.go.jp/kaiikiDB/kaiyo30-2.htm); Copernicus Browser, Copernicus Data Space Ecosystem, European Space Agency (URL: https://dataspace.copernicus.eu/browser/).